Where is photovoltaic found?

Photovoltaic (PV) devices generate electricity directly from sunlight via an electronic process that occurs naturally in certain types of material, called semiconductors. Electrons in these materials are freed by solar energy and can be induced to travel through an electrical circuit, powering electrical devices or sending electricity to the grid.

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PV devices can be used to power anything from small electronics such as calculators and road signs up to homes and large commercial businesses.

 

How does PV technology work?

Photons strike and ionize semiconductor material on the solar panel, causing outer electrons to break free of their atomic bonds. Due to the semiconductor structure, the electrons are forced in one direction creating a flow of electrical current. Solar cells are not 100% efficient in crystalline silicon solar cells, in part because only certain light within the spectrum can be absorbed. Some of the light spectrum is reflected, some is too weak to create electricity (infrared) and some (ultraviolet) creates heat energy instead of electricity.
Diagram of a typical crystalline silicon solar cell. To make this type of cell, wafers of high-purity silicon are &#;doped&#; with various impurities and fused together. The resulting structure creates a pathway for electrical current within and between the solar cells.

Other Types of Photovoltaic Technology

In addition to crystalline silicon (c-Si), there are two other main types of PV technology:

• Thin-film PV is a fast-growing but small part of the commercial solar market. Many thin-film firms are start-ups developing experimental technologies. They are generally less efficient &#; but often cheaper &#; than c-Si modules.
• In the United States, concentrating PV arrays are found primarily in the desert Southwest. They use lenses and mirrors to reflect concentrated solar energy onto high-efficiency cells. They require direct sunlight and tracking systems to be most effective.
• Building-integrated photovoltaics serve as both the outer layer of a structure and generate electricity for on-site use or export to the grid. BIPV systems can provide savings in materials and electricity costs, reduce pollution, and add to the architectural appeal of a building.

History of Photovoltaic Technology

The PV effect was observed as early as by Alexandre Edmund Becquerel, and was the subject of scientific inquiry through the early twentieth century. In , Bell Labs in the U.S. introduced the first solar PV device that produced a useable amount of electricity, and by , solar cells were being used in a variety of small-scale scientific and commercial applications.

The energy crisis of the s saw the beginning of major interest in using solar cells to produce electricity in homes and businesses, but prohibitive prices (nearly 30 times higher than the current price) made large-scale applications impractical.

Industry developments and research in the following years made PV devices more feasible and a cycle of increasing production and decreasing costs began which continues even today.

Costs of Solar Photovoltaics

Rapidly falling prices have made solar more affordable than ever. The average price of a completed PV system has dropped by 59 percent over the last decade.

For more information on the state of the solar PV market in the US, visit our solar industry data page.

Modern Photovoltaics

The cost of PV has dropped dramatically as the industry has scaled up manufacturing and incrementally improved the technology with new materials. Installation costs have come down too with more experienced and trained installers. Globally, the U.S. has the third largest market for PV installations, and is continuing to rapidly grow.

Most modern solar cells are made from either crystalline silicon or thin-film semiconductor material. Silicon cells are more efficient at converting sunlight to electricity, but generally have higher manufacturing costs. Thin-film materials typically have lower efficiencies, but can be simpler and less costly to manufacture. A specialized category of solar cells &#; called multi-junction or tandem cells &#; are used in applications requiring very low weight and very high efficiencies, such as satellites and military applications. All types of PV systems are widely used today in a variety of applications.

There are thousands of individual photovoltaic panel models available today from hundreds of companies. Compare solar panels by their efficiency, power output, warranties, and more on EnergySage.

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Solar energy is sunshine

Sunshine is radiant energy from the sun. The amount of solar radiation, or solar energy, the earth receives each day is many times greater than the total amount of all energy people consume each day. However, on the earth's surface, solar energy is a variable and intermittent energy source. Nevertheless, use of solar energy, especially for electricity generation, has increased significantly in the United States and around the world in the past 30 years.

Solar energy resources vary by location

The availability and intensity of solar radiation on the earth's surface varies by time of day and location. In general, the intensity of solar radiation at any location is greatest when the sun is at its highest apparent position in the sky&#;at solar noon&#;on clear, cloudless days.

Latitude, climate, and weather patterns are major factors that affect insolation&#;the amount of solar radiation received on a given surface area during a specific amount of time. Locations in lower latitudes and in arid climates generally receive higher amounts of insolation than other locations. Clouds, dust, volcanic ash, and pollution in the atmosphere affect insolation levels at the surface. Buildings, trees, and mountains may shade a location during different times of the day in different months of the year. Seasonal (monthly) variations in solar resources increase with increasing distance from the earth's equator.

The type of solar collector also determines the type of solar radiation and insolation that a solar collector receives. Concentrating solar collector systems, such as those used in solar thermal-electric power plants, require direct solar radiation, which is generally greater in arid regions with few cloudy days. Flat-plate solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV) collectors can use global solar radiation, which includes diffuse (scattered) and direct solar radiation.

In general, a solar energy collector with a tracking system that keeps the solar collectors oriented toward the sun will have higher daily and annual insolation than a solar collector in a fixed position.

The two maps below show U.S. average annual solar radiation in kilowatthours (kWh) per square meter per day (kWh/m2/d) for direct normal irradiance (DNI) and global horizontal irradiance (GHI). The world map below shows average daily global solar radiation on a horizontal flat surface.

Electricity generation is the top use of solar energy in the United States

Insolation is important for the technical and economic performance of solar energy systems. The availability of financial and other incentives for solar energy are major factors that affect where solar energy systems are installed. Net metering has been especially important in encouraging PV systems on homes and businesses.

Total solar energy use in the United States increased from about 0.02 trillion British thermal units (Btu) in to about 878 trillion Btu (or about 0.9 quadrillion Btu) in . Solar electricity generation accounted for about 93% of total solar energy use in and solar energy use for space and water heating accounted for about 7%.

Total U.S. solar electricity generation increased from about 5 million kWh in (nearly all from utility-scale, solar thermal-electric power plants) to about 238 billion kWh in . In , utility-scale PV power plants accounted for about 69% of total solar electricity generation, small-scale PV systems accounted for about 31%, and utility-scale solar thermal-electric power plants accounted for about 1%. Utility-scale power plants have at least 1,000 kilowatts (kW) (or one megawatt [MW]) of electricity generation capacity. Small-scale PV systems have less than one MW generation capacity.

In , California accounted for the largest percentage share of total utility-scale solar electricity generation (25%), followed by Texas (17%). California accounted for nearly 40% of total generation from small-scale PV systems. Most small-scale PV systems are installed on or near buildings. Residential sector small-scale PV systems accounted for 68% of total small-scale PV electricity generation and California's percentage was 39%.

Solar energy is used throughout the world

Solar energy is used all over the world, and like the United States, global solar electricity generation has increased substantially. Total world solar electricity generation grew from 0.4 billion kWh in to about 1,280 billion kWh (1.3 trillion kWh) in . China and the United States together accounted for about one-half of total world solar electricity generation in . The top five producers of solar electricity and their percentage shares of world total solar electricity generation in were:

• China&#;33%
• United States&#;16%
• Japan&#;7%
• India&#;7%
• Germany&#;5%

Last updated: July 12, . Data for the United States for are preliminary.

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